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Although Plato had been Aristotle’s teacher, most of Plato’s writings were not translated into Latin until over 200 years after the Recovery of Aristotle.[2] In the Middle Ages, the only book of Plato in general circulation was the first part of the dialogue Timaeus (to 53c), as a translation, with commentary, by Calcidius (or Chalcidius).[2] The Timaeus describes Plato’s cosmology, as his account of the origin of the universe. In the 12th century Henry Aristippus of Catania made translations of the Meno and the Phaedo, but those books were in limited circulation.[2] Some other translations of Plato’s books disappeared during the Middle Ages. Finally, about 200 years after the rediscovery of Aristotle, in the wider Renaissance Marsilio Ficino (1433–99) translated and commented on Plato’s complete works.[2]
RISE OF (RESTORATION OF) TRADE
Between the 12th and 15th centuries the European economy was transformed by the interconnecting of river and sea trade routes, causing Europe to become one of the world’s most prosperous trading networks.
THE MEDITERRANEAN
Before the 12th century, the main obstacle to trade east of the Strait of Gibraltar was lack of commercial incentives rather than inadequate ship design.
Economic growth of Spain followed the reconquest of Al-Andalus and the siege of Lisbon (1147 AD).
The decline of Fatimid Caliphate naval strength that started before the First Crusade helped the maritime Italian states, mainly Venice, Genoa and Pisa, dominate trade in the eastern Mediterranean, with Italian merchants becoming wealthy and politically influential. Further changing the mercantile situation in the Eastern Mediterranean was the waning of Byzantine naval power following the death of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in 1180, whose dynasty had made several notable treaties and concessions with Italian traders, permitting the use of Byzantine Christian ports.
From the 8th century until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice and neighbouring maritime republics held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East. The silk and spice trade, involving spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium, made these Mediterranean city-states phenomenally rich. Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages, as they were used in medieval medicine,[41] religious rituals, cosmetics, perfumery, as well as food additives and preservatives.They were all imported from Asia and Africa.
Source date (UTC): 2020-08-24 22:38:16 UTC
Original post: https://gab.com/curtd/posts/104746758686859011
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( MORE: … ) THE RESTORATION OF ARISTOTLE The “Recovery of Aristotle” (or Rediscovery) refers to the copying or re-translating of most of Aristotle’s books (of ancient Greece), from Greek or Arabic text into Latin, during the Middle Ages, of the Latin West. The Recovery of Aristotle spanned about 100 years, from the middle 12th century into the 13th century, and copied or translated over 42 books (see: Corpus Aristotelicum), The recovery of Aristotle’s texts is considered a major period in medieval philosophy, leading to Aristotelianism. Because some of Aristotle’s newly translated views discounted the notions of a personal God, immortal soul, or creation, various leaders of the Catholic Church were inclined to censor those views for decades, such as lists of forbidden books in the Condemnations of 1210–1277 at the University of Paris. In the 4th century, the Roman grammarian Marius Victorinus translated two of Aristotle’s books, about logic, into Latin: the Categories and On Interpretation (De Interpretatione).[2] A little over a century later, most of Aristotle’s logical works, except perhaps for the Posterior Analytics, had been translated by Boethius, c. 510–512[2] (see: Corpus Aristotelicum). However, only Boethius’s translations of the Categories and On Interpretation had entered into general circulation before the 12th century. All in all, only a few major works of Aristotle were never translated into Arabic.[4] Of these, the fate of Politics in particular remains uncertain.[5] The rest of Aristotle’s books were eventually translated into Latin, but over 600 years later, from about the middle of the 12th century. First, the rest of the logical works were finished,[1] by using the translations of Boethius as the basis.[6] Then came the Physics, followed by the Metaphysics (12th century), and Averroes’ Commentary on Aristotle’s Metaphysics (13th century),[3] so that all works were translated by the mid-13th century.[2] A text like On the Soul, for instance, was unavailable in Latin in Christian Europe before the middle of the twelfth century.[7] The first Latin translation is due to James of Venice (12th century), and has always been considered as the translatio vetus (ancient translation).[8] The second Latin translation (translatio nova, new translation) was made from the Arabic translation of the text around 1230, and it was accompanied by Averroes’s commentary; the translator is generally thought to be Michael Scot. James’s translatio vetus was then revised by William of Moerbeke in 1266–7, and became known as the “recensio nova” (new recension), which was the most widely read version.[9] On the Soul ended up becoming a component of the core curriculum of philosophical study in most medieval universities, giving birth to a very rich tradition of commentaries, especially c. 1260–1360.[10] (MORE … )
Original post: https://gab.com/curtd/posts/104746752160951120
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