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interpersonal reputation,
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small-group social networks,
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local knowledge,
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the speed of information, and
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the difficulty of coordinated lying.
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moral vice (religious traditions),
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individual wrongdoing (Roman law),
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or the subject of discrete torts (fraud, misrepresentation).
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Falsehood was individual, not institutional.
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The cost of lying was high relative to the benefit.
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Communities possessed shared knowledge ecosystems.
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face-to-face accountability,
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communal memory,
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limited reach of narratives,
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and strong incentives for truthfulness within small groups.
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gossip norms,
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social sanctions,
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kinship enforcement,
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reputation markets.
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mobilize populations
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bypass expert institutions
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reshape educational systems
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create political identities
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override empirical evidence
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Every individual can broadcast globally.
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Every institution can manufacture its own epistemic ecosystem.
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Specialized groups can coordinate messaging, saturate channels, and dominate discourse.
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Universities, NGOs, corporations, and political organizations produce competing “truth regimes.”
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Fact-checking institutions cannot scale to match production.
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Producing narratives is nearly costless.
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Verifying them is extremely costly.
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The public bears the externalities.
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political parties
-
bureaucracies
-
activist organizations
-
corporations
-
ideological movements
-
social networks
-
advocacy,
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ideology,
-
political marketing,
-
partial truths,
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curated misinformation.
-
empirical measurements
-
falsifiable hypotheses
-
reproducible procedures
-
decidable criteria
-
reciprocity
-
operationalization
-
falsifiability
-
liability
-
courts
-
legislatures
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commons governance
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media norms
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political processes